Drugs-- History

What follows is a brief outline of major events (and some not-so-major, but interesting events) in the history of drugs.  See the text for more detail on particular drugs.

6400 B.C.

ALCOHOL-- Beer and berry wines used. (Grape wines date to 300-400 B.C.) Use may date back as far as 8000 B.C. and was found world wide.

3000 B.C.

OPIUM-- Mentioned in Homer's "The Odyssey"-- both as medicinal and pleasure. Ancient Hebrews and Babylonians also used (med.)

2700 B.C.

MARIJUANA-- Used for rope, cloth, and paper. Used marginally for medicinal purposes, but also known for euphoriant effects.

300-400 B.C.

OPIUM-- Alexander the Great introduces opium to India. However, use in India actually came much later.

500 A.D.

COCAINE-- First record of cocaine use, though obviously dates back to earlier. A grave included all necessities for after-life-- including several bags of coca leaves.

600-700 A.D.

OPIUM-- Introduced to China by Arab traders. Until 17th century A.D., used only for medicinal purposes.

MARIJ-- Banned for medicinal uses in China since unpredictable and opium considered better.

800 A.D.

ALC-- Distillation said to have been developed in Arabia. 200 years later, the process was used in Europe to make "aqua vitae" later translated as "whiskey."

900 A.D.

CAFFEINE-- Discovered centuries earlier by a goatherd (reportedly named Kaldi), coffee is proclaimed by an Arabian medical book as being good for measles and reducing lust.

1000 A.D.

COCAINE-- by this time, coca extensively cultivated in Peru. The terrain in area unsuited to grow almost anything else. Some of the same coca patches (some still legal in Peru) have been in operation for over 800 years.

MARIJ-- Social use of cannabis spread to Muslim world. Use in India as part of religion-- considered gift from Almighty.

1492

TOBACCO-- Oct. 12, 1492, natives of San Salvador presented Columbus with tobacco leaves-- a fitting birthday present. (One member of Columbus' crew, upon returning, was jailed because his friends and a priest were convinced that he was possessed because he would exhale smoke. Upon release, he noted that many people were then doing what he had been jailed for.)

ALC-- distillation common in America-- especially in hills ("proof" comes from old British Army procedure of testing alcohol content-- pour over gunpowder; if still able to ignite the alcohol content was good (57% or higher). The sound made ("pooff") became "proof."

TOBAC-- used as medicine for everything-- headaches, abscesses, etc. Nicotine named for a French physician, Jean Nicot.

1600's

OPIUM-- The Dutch, while exploring/exploiting China, discovered that smoking opium with tobacco relieved symptoms of malaria. Smoking of opium (for pleasure) caught on in China.

COCAINE-- Well developed civilization in Peru, using coca leaves as money. Spanish conquerors adopted same, and paid laborers with leaves.

TOBAC-- Tobacco one main reason for attempts at colonization of Americas by Britain. Finally able to do so by 1619-- and decreed that no tobacco growth in England.

CAFFEINE-- 1674- the "Women's Petition Against Coffee" appeared in England-- they claimed their men used too much coffee and were, thus, "unfruitful" (i.e., impotent).

1729

OPIUM-- 1st Chinese decree against opium smoking-- had little effect. At this time, major source of opium was through importation, which was controlled by the Portuguese, who brought in over 200,000 pounds in this first year of prohibition.

1773

CAFFEINE-- Taxation w/o representation led to boycotts of English tea, putting the East India Co. into trouble. Cheap, non-taxed tea was shipped to Colonies, and on Dec. 16, 1773, to protest this practice (that would have been financially ruinous to Colonial businessmen), 342 chests of tea were dumped into Boston Harbor. This resulted in a trend for Colonists to be coffee drinkers and English to be even more tea drinkers-- symbolic.

1800

OPIUM-- New Chinese decree banning cultivation and importation of opium in or to China. However, the British East India Co. considered this to lead to too much of a cost-- currently shipping in 1,000 TONS of opium to China per year-- 54% of profits for whole company. Other countries also involved-- Portugal, France, Holland, & U.S.A. From 1838-1839, 40,000 chests of opium delivered into China (2,670 TONS, compare with 33 tons into America in 1973).

1803

OPIUM-- Morphine isolated.

1827

ALC-- formation of American Temperance Society.

1830's

MARIJ-- Introduced to France by returning soldiers, intellectuals thrilled about hashish. (Described in The Count of Monte Cristo).

ALC-- First law to limit alcohol availability in U.S.-- forbade selling to Indians.

1839-1842

OPIUM-- Chinese got tough-- Opium Wars with Britain-- China lost. Influx of opium followed (5,000 TONS). Opium brought to U.S. primarily by Chinese laborers.

1850's

OPIUM-- Hypodermic needle invented (1856). By the end of Civil War, 45,000 soldiers addicted to morphine.

ALC-- Between 1851 and 1855, 13 states passed prohibition laws. By 1868, 9 had repealed them. Same pattern later. Again, laws aimed partially at those who were partaking.   IN 1852, Susan B. Anthony established the Women's State Temperance Society of New York, the first such society formed by and for women.

Mid-1800's

COCAINE-- introduced to Europe-- chiefly by Angelo Mariani, a French chemist, who introduced coca extracts in such products as tea and, most popularly, wine. Was presented a medal of appreciation by the Pope for his efforts.  1880's, use found as local anesthetic.

1886-- a green nerve tonic evolved into Coca-Cola-- containing extracts of coca leaves. All traces of cocaine gone by 1906 (actually seized by FDA in 1909 because it contained "no coca and little if no cola" (so, misbranded) and contained an added "poisonous" ingredient-- caffeine.

ALC--  In 1886 Congress makes "temperance education" mandatory in the District of Columbia, military and naval schools, and in federally held territories.   By 1900, all the states had similar laws.

1884

COCAINE-- Sigmund Freud found cocaine to be a "magical" drug-- using it himself to stave off depression and indigestion. He urged all friends, colleagues, etc., to try it. Recommended it as a safe treatment for morphine addiction. However, after nursing a friend through a frightful night of cocaine psychosis, brought about by trying to counter his friend's morphine addiction, he bitterly was against the use of drugs.

1897

===> Tea Importation Act-- possibly first consumer protection law. Test incoming loads for quality (by tasting, of course).

1898

OPIUM-- Heroin developed by Bayer CO., -- considered to be safe and non-addicting. Became new drug of choice until addictive qualities learned.

=====> At this time, anywhere from 1 in 400 to 1 in 20 adults addicted to opium, morphine or heroin in U.S. Typical addict: 30 to 50 year old white woman. Estimated that 50% of adult Chinese population addicted to opium.

MARIJ-- Recommended by William James (psychologist) as way to study mind-- described by one psychologist in 1899 as a "microscope; it magnifies psychological states..."

TOBAC-- Tobacco dropped as medicine from United States Pharmacopeia.

1901

ALC/OPIUM--  The Senate adopts a resolution to forbid the sale of opium and alcohol "to aboriginal tribes and uncivilized races."  These provisions are later extended to include "uncivilized elements in America itself and its territories, such as Indians, Alaskans, and the inhabitants of Hawaii, railroad workers, and immigrants at ports of entry."

BARBITURATES-- Barbital is first barbiturate to be used clinically. Others followed over next three decades.

1904

Iced Tea and tea bags introduced.

1906

===> Food and Drug Act enacted-- strictly a "labeling law"-- only affected misbranded foods and drugs. Main concern were "patent medicines."

===> Fear of Chinese opium dens coupled with stories of cocaine-fueled violence by Blacks down South-- topped by an inflammatory and unsubstantiated account to Congress of how cocaine was leading to the raping of white women by black men-- lead to calls for further restrictions.

1907

ALC-- From 1907 to 1919, 39 states enacted prohibitions and only 2 repealed. 64% of Americans lived in "dry" territory.

1912

===> Hague Convention-- calling for international regulation of opium. U.S., who convened convention, called on the carpet for not having any drug restrictions.

1914

===> Harrison Tax Act-- Direct response to Hague Convention-- only a tax. Physicians able to "minister to patients" and "...drugs obtained by addicts were to be secured through registered physicians." Coca and cocaine inappropriately identified in this Act as narcotics.

1919

TOBAC-- First ad showing a woman smoking.

MARIJ-- The U.S. Department of Agriculture publishes a pamphlet urging Americans to grow cannabis as a profitable undertaking.

1920's

===> Since Harrison Act was a tax, enforcement taken over by treasury department during prohibition. Over zealous interpretation of law-- not just collect taxes and insure registration, but took on prosecutorial position. Even prosecuting doctors prescribing to addicts. Refused to register other sellers (even though allowed by law), and closed public health clinics that administered to addicts (since not considered legitimate medical purpose). Two times as many drug (opiates and cocaine) arrests as for alcohol during this time.

OPIUM-- during time of WW-I, 200,000 to 1,000,000 addicts in U.S.-- during prohibition, some quit, others went "underground" and to crime to support addiction.

AMPHETAMINES-- Search for longer acting, safer substitute for ephedrine, used in China for centuries, for bronchial spasms, led to development of amphetamines by Leak and Alles. Available over-the- counter (without prescription).

ALC-- Jan. 16, 1920-- 18th Amendment (Volstead Act; prohibition) ratified; took effect 1/16/21. Helped launch suffragette movement since women were instrumental in the passage of this act.

MARIJ-- Some references to use by Mexican-Americans, but use and concern about it low. Use popular in some areas (cities)-- tea dens, since M.J. legal. In 1926, however, a series of reports from New Orleans linking M.J. with crime piqued public concern.

1933

ALC-- Dec. 5, 1933-- 21st Amendment overturning 18th. Realized that, while drinking and alcoholism had gone down, organized crime had become stronger; willful violation of law was rampant; and, with Depression, tax money was wanted. Sales did not reach pre-prohibition levels until after WW-II.

1935

MARIJ-- 36 states with laws regulating use, sale, or possession of M.J. By 1936, all 48 states had laws. Increasingly, violent crimes blamed on M.J. use. By 1937, touted as foremost menace to life, health and morals in America.

1937

MARIJ-- Marijuana Tax Act-- While not making it illegal, by taxing grower, distributor, seller and buyer, it made it virtually impossible to get. (The Act specified only one species of cannabis, and although all contain the same active ingredients, they are impossible to tell apart after processing, making enforcement impossible as well). The STATE laws then made it illegal. HOWEVER, in 1969, the Supreme Court ruled the Tax Act unconstitutional because for it to be followed, the user or seller would have to declare self, thus incriminating self, in violation of 5th amendment. Use dropped markedly until late 1950's/early 1960's.

1938

===> 1938 Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act-- At this time, sulfa drugs commonly used as antibiotics-- in search of a liquid form, a chemist found that one sulfa (sulfanilamide) dissolved in diethylene glycol. Unfortunately, diethylene glycol causes kidney poisoning and this drug killed 107 people before being pulled off the shelves in 1937. Reason for it being pulled off? A true elixir, as it was advertised to be, contained alcohol. In other words, it did not have to be safe. The chemist committed suicide; the company paid the largest fine in the history of the existing 1906 law; and the 1938 Act was enacted saying that drugs or cosmetics had to be tested for toxicity before marketing. Also, adequate directions for use needed to be on package and made first mention of "use by instruction from physician only"-- in other words, prescription vs. non-prescription medications. It wasn't until 1962, on the heels of the thalidomide situation, that amendments were added stating that a drug had to be effective for what it was intended and that approval had to be given before trials on humans could be conducted. Investigation of existing drugs' effectiveness began in 1964-- by 1974, 6133 drugs had been removed for ineffectiveness.

1939

AMPHET'S-- Found by now to lower appetite and actively used as stimulant. Used by both sides in WW-II to keep soldiers alert. It was observed that soldiers on amphetamines had better morale, tended to lead the march, and tolerated blisters more cheerfully. A group of University of Minnesota students also found it to be useful for cramming for exams. No concern for non-medical use of amphet's developed until after WW-II.

1943

LSD-- April 16, 1943, Hoffman ingests LSD. Does so a second time and describes effects. LSD became important for the identification of the neurotransmitter, serotonin. Not regulated, but initial use limited until early 1960's. Declared illegal in 1970.

1946

AMPHET'S-- first articles appear on amphetamine psychoses. Japan had such a large stockpile of the drug after WW-II that it was sold without prescription and use was initially encouraged. However, a number of health problems developed and it was estimated that 2% (1.5 million people) of the population were abusing amphetamines. Through extreme penal, education, and treatment programs, it was mostly eradicated about twenty years after the problem started.

1953

LSD-- Nov. 28, 1953-- Dr. Frank Olson commits suicide two weeks after being slipped a dose of LSD by CIA agents. This incident is revealed in 1975 and it is subsequently found that 585 soldiers and 900 civilians had been experimented on between 1956 & 57-- many not volunteers or able to quit study or know purpose.

1954

TOBAC-- Filter-tipped cigarettes introduced.

1965

===> Drug Abuse Control Amendments-- referred to amphetamines, barbiturates and LSD as dangerous drugs and allowed for FDA to recommend to Department of Health Education and Welfare to control them and other drugs that may later be deemed a problem.

1966

ALC-- The last "dry" state (Mississippi) went "wet" in 1966.

1970

Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 (Controlled Substance Act of 1970)-- Specifically stated that drugs under act were now under Federal jurisdiction and dealt with both narcotics and other "dangerous" drugs. Also dealt with prevention and treatment. Treated marijuana differently-- making a separate commission to study this and report in 1972.

Contrary to previous acts, this one was to control drugs directly, not through taxes-- moving enforcement out of Treasury to Justice. Attorney General in charge of enforcement; but HEW in charge of defining what needs to be controlled, considering:

1) pharmacologic actions

2) other scientific knowledge about it and related drugs.

3) risk to public health

4) dependence (psychic or physiologic) potential

5) whether the drug was a precursor for other drugs listed.

Alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine were excluded.

1972

Marijuana recommended to be downgraded to misdemeanor. Oregon first state to do so in 1973-- resulting in small increase in use. Nine other states have done same (including. Minn.) In 1970's, Carter administration worked toward Federal decriminalization.

1986

Drug Analogue and Anti-Drug Abuse Acts-- The Drug Analogue act was enacted to deal with "designer" drugs, allowing immediate classification of a substance as a controlled substance.  Previous to this, people were avoiding prosecution with chemically altered versions of controlled substances with similar drug effects because they didn't appear on the Schedules.  The Anti-drug abuse act was focused on penalties for trafficking.

1988

Omnibus Drug Act (aka, "Chemical diversion and trafficking act")-- added registration requirements on airplanes and boats, dealt with arms sales, money laundering, and added death penalty for murder connected with drug-related felony. Toughened penalties for users.

1990s

TOBACCO-- Legislation and litigation has taken on a new twist, with cigarette manufacturers being challenged for health costs associated with use of their product.  This has led to settlements with numerous states, notably the Minnesota settlement in 1998.  Further, the Food and Drug Administration proposed in 1996 to place tobacco under its control (excluded in the Controlled Subst. Act and also the Pure Food and Drug Act that established the FDA.)  The FDA maintains that cigarettes are a "nicotine delivery device" and, therefore, similar to any other drug product.  Congress has disagreed and the cigarette manufacturers have challenged this in the courts.  The Clinton administration has sided with the FDA.  The Supreme Court heard arguments on this matter in Fall, 1999.  [Update: The Supreme Court decided against the FDA being able to regulate tobacco, citing the Controlled Substances Act as deliberately excluding tobacco from the FDA's control.  Congress would need to act to change the law.]

1996

AMPHETAMINES--  The Comprehensive Methamphetamine Control Act restricts access to chemicals and equipment used in the manufacture of methamphetamine and increases penalties for possession of these plus the manufacture and/or sale of the drug.

2000

MARIJ-- The Minnesota legislature takes up the issue of growing (non-drug) hemp as an agricultural product.

TOBACCO-- A Florida jury awards a record-breaking $145 billion punitive damage award for a class-action suit.  Of course, the appeals process has only just begun...

2000-2004

MARIJ-- More states (the latest is Vermont) add 'medical marijuana' laws, allowing use of marijuana by prescription, the Federal government continues to fight these moves.  The issue could be moving to the Supreme Court regarding states' rights.

ALC-- Minnesota, facing loss of millions of Federal highway dollars, passes the .08 legal limit law, leaving only Delaware at the old 1.0 level.  Implementation of the law, however, was delayed until 2005.

2005

AMPHETAMINES-- More states begin restricting access to cold medications containing pseudoephedrine (such as Sudafed) to disrupt home manufacure of methamphetamine.

MARIJ--  The U.S. Supreme Court rules that Federal drug laws supercede state's rights to allow distribution of marijuana for medical purposes.